The abuse liability of racemic ketamine and its enantiomers: a scoping review of preclinical and clinical evidence
Abstract
Ketamine has gained popularity as a mainstream “club drug” in the youth dance culture across many parts of the world, including East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Australia and North America. Recreational use of ketamine is associated with multiple acute toxicities and chronic impairments, such as cardiovascular effects (e.g., hypertension, tachycardia), psychological effects (e.g., agitation, paranoid delusions, depersonalization, and dissociation), risk of physical or social harms, cognitive impairments, urinary tract dysfunction, liver damage, and schizophrenia-like symptoms. Although the abuse potential of the racemic ketamine is widely recognized, there is limited evidence on the differential abuse liability of ketamine’s enantiomers. This scoping review aims to evaluate the extant preclinical and clinical literature on the abuse liability and addictive properties of racemic-, (S)-, and (R)-ketamine.
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